MODULE 1 - Gathering and Processing Information
THIS MODULE seeks to instill in students the ability to speak and write with control of the grammar, vocabulary, mechanics and conventions of Caribbean Standard English usage. Students should also be able to identify the characteristic formats, organizational features and modes of expression of different genres and types of writing and speech.
Students should also be able to evaluate the appropriateness of data collection methods and instruments, including the use of the internet as an electronic resource. They should also create a portfolio of oral and written work.
RESEARCH METHODS
Research
Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the function of the researcher to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to others. This chapter explains what research is and what it is not. Eight characteristics of research are presented. The process of research as a helical cycle is discussed.
Research is a process through which we attempt to achieve systematically and with the support of data the answer to a question, the resolution of a problem, or a greater understanding of a phenomenon. This process, which is frequently called research methodology, has eight distinct characteristics:
Characteristics of Formal Research
1. Research originates with a question or problem. The world is filled with unanswered questions, unresolved problems. Everywhere we look, we observe things that cause us to wonder, to speculate, to ask questions. And by asking questions, we strike the first spark igniting a chain reaction that terminates in the research process. An inquisitive mind is the beginning of research. There is so much that we do not know that we do not understand! The hope of mitigating our ignorance lies in the questions we ask and the information we gather and in whose collective meaning we may find insight. The problem and its statement are important because they are the point of origin of formal research.
2. Research requires a clear articulation of a goal. A clear, unambiguous statement of the problem is critical. This statement is an exercise in intellectual honesty. It cannot brook vagueness, or the avoidance of an obligation to set forth clearly and in a grammatically complete sentence precisely what the ultimate goal of the research is. The statement asks the researcher, "What precisely do you intend to do?" This is basic and is required for the success of any research undertaking. Without it, the research is on shaky ground indeed.
3. Research requires a specific plan of procedure. Research is a carefully planned attack, a search-and-discover mission explicitly planned in advance. Consider the title of this text: Practical Research: Planning and Design. The last three words are the important ones. The overall research effort must be explicitly planned and logically designed. Researchers plan their overall research design and specific research methods in a purposeful way -- that is, to yield data relevant to their particular research problem. Depending on the specific research question, different designs and methods will be more or less appropriate.
4. Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems. The whole is composed of the sum of its parts. That is a universal natural law; that is also a good precept to observe in thinking about one's principal goal in research. We break down principal problems much more frequently than we realize.
Let's take an everyday problem to see how it breaks down into a number of sub-problems. Suppose you want to get from your town to a town 50 miles away. Your principal goal is to get from one location to the other as expeditiously as possible. You soon realize, however, that at the outset some sub-problems must be considered. Here is a structuralization of the problem and its attendant sub-problems:
Main problem:
How do I get from Town A to Town B?
Sub-problems:
5. Research is guided by the specific research problem, question, or hypothesis. Having stated the problem and the attendant sub-problems, each sub-problem is then viewed through a construct called a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, an educated conjecture. It may direct your thinking to the possible source of information that will aid in resolving the research problem through the resolution of each attendant sub-problem.
6. Research accepts certain critical assumptions. In research, the assumption must be valid or else the research cannot proceed. For this reason, careful researchers -- certainly in academic research -- set forth a statement of the assumptions as the bedrock upon which the study must rest. In your research, therefore, it is important that others know what you assume with respect to your project. For, if one is to judge the quality of your study, then the knowledge of what you assume as basic to the very existence of your study is vitally important.
7. Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the problem that initiated the research. Having now isolated the problem, divided it into appropriate sub-problems, posited reasonable questions or hypotheses, and recognized the assumptions that are basic to the entire effort, the next step is to collect whatever data seem appropriate and to organize them in meaningful ways so that they can be interpreted.
8. Research is, by its nature, cyclical; or more exactly, helical. The research process follows a cycle and begins simply. It follows logical, developmental steps:
a. A questioning mind observes a particular situation and asks, Why? What caused that? How come? (This is the subjective origin of research.)
b. The answer to those questions becomes formally stated as a problem. (This is the overt beginning of research.)
c. Data are gathered that seem to bear on the problem.
d. The data seem to point to a tentative solution of the problem. A guess is made; a hypothesis or guiding question is formed.
e. The quest for more data continues.
f. The body of data is processed and interpreted.
g. A discovery is made; a conclusion is reached.
h. The tentative hypothesis is either supported by the data or is not supported; the question is partially / completely answered or not.
i. The cycle is complete.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
These are methods through which the researcher may get valuable data on a topic that the researcher needs more information on. Data collection methods may take various forms
1. Questionnaires
These are a collection of questions that the respondents complete on their own. They are used when factual information is required. A questionnaire is used with all research designs. These are the ways in which a questionnaire can be administered:
* Face to face
* Via the telephone
* Via the mail
* Via electronic mail
2. Interviews
They are a list of questions administered to the respondent face to face. These can either be structured or unstructured. The structured interviews comprise a set of precisely formulated questions, which are asked of a respondent. The unstructured interviews allow the respondent to respond to a stimulus question. It is very informal and allows for the respondent to speak for as long as he/she wants. These are used in qualitative research and case studies, but can be useful in surveys- especially social surveys.
3. Observation schedule
The researcher records observations in terms of a predetermined schedule. This is used in action research as well as case studies.
4. Attitude or Sentiment scales
These are used to measure attitudes, beliefs and opinions of a respondent. They can be used with all types of research, but more specifically with surveys and action research.
SAMPLE SELECTION
A researcher who undertakes a survey involving large numbers of people will find it impractical or even impossible to canvas the views of everyone in that population. He has to then ensure that he takes a sample of the total population.
The sample is a portion or fraction or subset of the total population. It is assumed that the sample is homogeneous and that the characteristics found in the sample may reasonably be expected to be found in the whole.
When generalizations are to be made about the total population this sample should accurately reflect the opinions, beliefs or choices of the population.
Therefore it must satisfy two basic conditions:
* It must be numerically large enough to correctly reflect the views of the whole population in other words; it must be sufficient or adequate.
* All segments of the population indicated by relevant variables such as sex, age, social class, occupation etc. are to be proportionately included in the sample in other words, it must be representative.
Types of Sampling
There are two types of sampling: probability and non-probability.
Probability sampling, also known as random sampling, is one way of making sure that the sample is representative of the population and that the procedure used in your research has validity. It ensures that no member of the sample is likely to be preferred than another in the selection. The selection cannot be predicted. Here the researcher's bias is eliminated and the procedure becomes more consistent and efficient.
Non-probability sampling, also referred to as convenience sampling is used when the total extent of the population is not known. The researcher selects the sample at his discretion not randomly. One cannot guarantee validity and the absence of bias in this kind of selection and the results gathered using this type of sampling may not be totally reliable. However it has some advantages; it is less expensive and uses less time and resources.
Primary and Secondary Sources of Information
Primary sources of information allow the learner to access original and unedited information. A primary source requires the learner to interact with the source and extract information.
Secondary sources are edited primary sources, second-hand versions. They represent someone else's thinking.
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Primary or Secondary
DISCOURSE TYPES
Types of Discourse
Narrative
When you write a narrative essay, you are telling a story.
Narrative essays are told from a defined point of view, often the author's, so there is feeling as well as specific and often sensory details provided to get the reader involved in the elements and sequence of the story. The verbs are vivid and precise. The narrative essay makes a point and that point is often defined in the opening sentence, but can also be found as the last sentence in the opening paragraph. Since a narrative relies on personal experiences, it often is in the form of a story.
When the writer uses this technique, he or she must be sure to include all the conventions of storytelling: plot, character, setting, climax, and ending. It is usually filled with details that are carefully selected to explain, support, or embellish the story. All of the details relate to the main point the writer is attempting to make.
A narrative also relates things in history or describes processes. The narrative organizes facts and presents events at a climatic or dramatic point and by flashback method; it brings the story to the present time. Narratives focus on settings, characters and events and engage the readers’ attention because of the elements of suspense, intrigue and excitement.
To summarize, the narrative essay
Descriptive Writing
Descriptive writing conveys images and impressions of a person, a place, an event or a thing. Descriptive writing appears almost everywhere, from reference books to poems. You might use a description to introduce a character in a narrative or to create a strong closing to a persuasive essay. In the descriptive type of writing, the writer appeals to the five senses.
The use of adjectives, figurative language such as similes, metaphors, alliterations and onomatopoeia are extremely important as they help to create images to please the senses.
Remember there are five types of imagery and they are named according to the senses to which they appeal: tactile – touch/feeling, visual images – sight, audible images - hearing, gustatory –taste, olfactory –smell.
Persuasive Writing
In persuasive writing, a writer takes a position FOR or AGAINST an issue and writes to convince the reader to believe or do something. Persuasive writing is often used in advertisements to get the reader to buy a product. It is also used in essays and other types of writing to get the reader to accept a point of view. In order to convince the reader you need more than opinion; you need facts or examples to back your opinion. So, be sure to do the research!
Persuasive writing follows a particular format. It has an introduction, a body where the argument is developed, and a conclusion. Persuasive writing attempts to convince the reader that the point of view or course of action recommended by the writer is valid. To accomplish this, the writer must develop a limited topic which is well defined and debatable, that is has more than one side. It is important that the author understand other sides of the position so that the strongest information to counter the others can be presented. In the essay, only one side of the issue is presented.
The verb ‘persuade’ means to convince someone to agree with you or to convince others to accept your opinion. In order to do this effectively you must be convincing, you must use various methods to be successful. You may use gestures, various tones of voice, and facial expressions, employ body language, use diagrams, pictures, graphs, statistics, etc. whatever it takes, you must ensure that you do it in order to be successful.
To ensure that you write effectively in this area you must employ different techniques/skills, to do well.
Some techniques include use of: repetition, evidence, analogies, contrast, rhetorical questions, sarcasm, reliable source of authority, statistics, appeal to emotion, direct personal appeal, definition or a personal experience, exaggeration, comparisons, anecdote.
1. Use of evidence – this giving concrete information that can be proven by the source, e.g. scientific.
2. Use of Analogy – this is the comparison of two things that are similar in certain ways to illustrate a point.
3. Use of reliable source or authority Example: Information from journals or encyclopedia.
4. Use of Contrast
5. Appeal to emotion
6. Use of rhetorical questions –A Rhetorical Question is a question that is asked not to be answered, but to affect the reader or listener.
7. Use of repetition – Repetition is a device in which a word, phrase or sentence is repeated for emphasis.
8. Direct Personal Appeal
9. An Anecdote: An anecdote is a short tale narrating an interesting or amusing biographical incident.An anecdote can provide an amusing and attention-getting opening if it is short and to the point.
10. Statistic or Fact: Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data. A fact is defined as something that is true, something that actually exists, or something having objective reality that can be verified according to an established standard of evaluation.Sometimes a statistic or fact will add emphasis or interest to your topic. It may be wise to include the item's authoritative source.
These are really ‘tools of persuasion’ as they GET to you.
G- Grab reader’s attention.
E- Engage the audience for the given time.
T- Talk about their belief.
Expository Writing
Exposition is a type of oral or written discourse that is used to explain, describe, give information or inform. The creator of an expository text cannot assume that the reader or listener has prior knowledge or prior understanding of the topic that is being discussed. One important point to keep in mind for the author is to try to use words that clearly show what they are talking about rather than blatantly telling the reader what is being discussed. Since clarity requires strong organization, one of the most important mechanisms that can be used to improve our skills in exposition is to provide directions to improve the organization of the text.
The expository category is characterized by facts. In this section students make use of facts, data from surveys, reports and manuals. There is usually analysis, definition, classification and reference.
A good piece of expository writing begins with a key sentence, which sums up or defines the subject matter. If your composition is going to be long or elaborate, you can use your introductory paragraph to make some general remarks, to address the reader, or to indicate the treatment you will give your subject in subsequent paragraphs.
Note: In this type of writing, a summing up paragraph is usually required. This summing up paragraph gives you the opportunity to tie your beginning with your writing as a whole.
THIS MODULE seeks to instill in students the ability to speak and write with control of the grammar, vocabulary, mechanics and conventions of Caribbean Standard English usage. Students should also be able to identify the characteristic formats, organizational features and modes of expression of different genres and types of writing and speech.
Students should also be able to evaluate the appropriateness of data collection methods and instruments, including the use of the internet as an electronic resource. They should also create a portfolio of oral and written work.
RESEARCH METHODS
Research
Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the function of the researcher to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to others. This chapter explains what research is and what it is not. Eight characteristics of research are presented. The process of research as a helical cycle is discussed.
Research is a process through which we attempt to achieve systematically and with the support of data the answer to a question, the resolution of a problem, or a greater understanding of a phenomenon. This process, which is frequently called research methodology, has eight distinct characteristics:
- Research originates with a question or problem.
- Research requires a clear articulation of a goal.
- Research follows a specific plan of procedure.
- Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems.
- Research is guided by the specific research problem, question, or hypothesis.
- Research accepts certain critical assumptions.
- Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the problem that initiated the research.
- Research is, by its nature, cyclical; or more exactly, helical.
Characteristics of Formal Research
1. Research originates with a question or problem. The world is filled with unanswered questions, unresolved problems. Everywhere we look, we observe things that cause us to wonder, to speculate, to ask questions. And by asking questions, we strike the first spark igniting a chain reaction that terminates in the research process. An inquisitive mind is the beginning of research. There is so much that we do not know that we do not understand! The hope of mitigating our ignorance lies in the questions we ask and the information we gather and in whose collective meaning we may find insight. The problem and its statement are important because they are the point of origin of formal research.
2. Research requires a clear articulation of a goal. A clear, unambiguous statement of the problem is critical. This statement is an exercise in intellectual honesty. It cannot brook vagueness, or the avoidance of an obligation to set forth clearly and in a grammatically complete sentence precisely what the ultimate goal of the research is. The statement asks the researcher, "What precisely do you intend to do?" This is basic and is required for the success of any research undertaking. Without it, the research is on shaky ground indeed.
3. Research requires a specific plan of procedure. Research is a carefully planned attack, a search-and-discover mission explicitly planned in advance. Consider the title of this text: Practical Research: Planning and Design. The last three words are the important ones. The overall research effort must be explicitly planned and logically designed. Researchers plan their overall research design and specific research methods in a purposeful way -- that is, to yield data relevant to their particular research problem. Depending on the specific research question, different designs and methods will be more or less appropriate.
4. Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems. The whole is composed of the sum of its parts. That is a universal natural law; that is also a good precept to observe in thinking about one's principal goal in research. We break down principal problems much more frequently than we realize.
Let's take an everyday problem to see how it breaks down into a number of sub-problems. Suppose you want to get from your town to a town 50 miles away. Your principal goal is to get from one location to the other as expeditiously as possible. You soon realize, however, that at the outset some sub-problems must be considered. Here is a structuralization of the problem and its attendant sub-problems:
Main problem:
How do I get from Town A to Town B?
Sub-problems:
- What is the most direct route?
- How far do I travel on the highway?
- What is the number of the exit I take in leaving the highway?
5. Research is guided by the specific research problem, question, or hypothesis. Having stated the problem and the attendant sub-problems, each sub-problem is then viewed through a construct called a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, an educated conjecture. It may direct your thinking to the possible source of information that will aid in resolving the research problem through the resolution of each attendant sub-problem.
6. Research accepts certain critical assumptions. In research, the assumption must be valid or else the research cannot proceed. For this reason, careful researchers -- certainly in academic research -- set forth a statement of the assumptions as the bedrock upon which the study must rest. In your research, therefore, it is important that others know what you assume with respect to your project. For, if one is to judge the quality of your study, then the knowledge of what you assume as basic to the very existence of your study is vitally important.
7. Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the problem that initiated the research. Having now isolated the problem, divided it into appropriate sub-problems, posited reasonable questions or hypotheses, and recognized the assumptions that are basic to the entire effort, the next step is to collect whatever data seem appropriate and to organize them in meaningful ways so that they can be interpreted.
8. Research is, by its nature, cyclical; or more exactly, helical. The research process follows a cycle and begins simply. It follows logical, developmental steps:
a. A questioning mind observes a particular situation and asks, Why? What caused that? How come? (This is the subjective origin of research.)
b. The answer to those questions becomes formally stated as a problem. (This is the overt beginning of research.)
c. Data are gathered that seem to bear on the problem.
d. The data seem to point to a tentative solution of the problem. A guess is made; a hypothesis or guiding question is formed.
e. The quest for more data continues.
f. The body of data is processed and interpreted.
g. A discovery is made; a conclusion is reached.
h. The tentative hypothesis is either supported by the data or is not supported; the question is partially / completely answered or not.
i. The cycle is complete.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
These are methods through which the researcher may get valuable data on a topic that the researcher needs more information on. Data collection methods may take various forms
1. Questionnaires
These are a collection of questions that the respondents complete on their own. They are used when factual information is required. A questionnaire is used with all research designs. These are the ways in which a questionnaire can be administered:
* Face to face
* Via the telephone
* Via the mail
* Via electronic mail
2. Interviews
They are a list of questions administered to the respondent face to face. These can either be structured or unstructured. The structured interviews comprise a set of precisely formulated questions, which are asked of a respondent. The unstructured interviews allow the respondent to respond to a stimulus question. It is very informal and allows for the respondent to speak for as long as he/she wants. These are used in qualitative research and case studies, but can be useful in surveys- especially social surveys.
3. Observation schedule
The researcher records observations in terms of a predetermined schedule. This is used in action research as well as case studies.
4. Attitude or Sentiment scales
These are used to measure attitudes, beliefs and opinions of a respondent. They can be used with all types of research, but more specifically with surveys and action research.
SAMPLE SELECTION
A researcher who undertakes a survey involving large numbers of people will find it impractical or even impossible to canvas the views of everyone in that population. He has to then ensure that he takes a sample of the total population.
The sample is a portion or fraction or subset of the total population. It is assumed that the sample is homogeneous and that the characteristics found in the sample may reasonably be expected to be found in the whole.
When generalizations are to be made about the total population this sample should accurately reflect the opinions, beliefs or choices of the population.
Therefore it must satisfy two basic conditions:
* It must be numerically large enough to correctly reflect the views of the whole population in other words; it must be sufficient or adequate.
* All segments of the population indicated by relevant variables such as sex, age, social class, occupation etc. are to be proportionately included in the sample in other words, it must be representative.
Types of Sampling
There are two types of sampling: probability and non-probability.
Probability sampling, also known as random sampling, is one way of making sure that the sample is representative of the population and that the procedure used in your research has validity. It ensures that no member of the sample is likely to be preferred than another in the selection. The selection cannot be predicted. Here the researcher's bias is eliminated and the procedure becomes more consistent and efficient.
Non-probability sampling, also referred to as convenience sampling is used when the total extent of the population is not known. The researcher selects the sample at his discretion not randomly. One cannot guarantee validity and the absence of bias in this kind of selection and the results gathered using this type of sampling may not be totally reliable. However it has some advantages; it is less expensive and uses less time and resources.
Primary and Secondary Sources of Information
Primary sources of information allow the learner to access original and unedited information. A primary source requires the learner to interact with the source and extract information.
Secondary sources are edited primary sources, second-hand versions. They represent someone else's thinking.
Primary Sources
- Person
- Interview
- E-Mail contact
- Event
- Discussion
- Debate
- Community Meeting
- Survey
- Artifact
- Observation of object (animate and inanimate)
Secondary Sources
- Reference Material
- Book
- CD Rom
- Encyclopedia
- Magazine
- Newspaper
- Video Tape
- Audio Tape
- TV
Primary or Secondary
- Internet Web Site
- Graph, chart, diagram, table
DISCOURSE TYPES
Types of Discourse
Narrative
When you write a narrative essay, you are telling a story.
Narrative essays are told from a defined point of view, often the author's, so there is feeling as well as specific and often sensory details provided to get the reader involved in the elements and sequence of the story. The verbs are vivid and precise. The narrative essay makes a point and that point is often defined in the opening sentence, but can also be found as the last sentence in the opening paragraph. Since a narrative relies on personal experiences, it often is in the form of a story.
When the writer uses this technique, he or she must be sure to include all the conventions of storytelling: plot, character, setting, climax, and ending. It is usually filled with details that are carefully selected to explain, support, or embellish the story. All of the details relate to the main point the writer is attempting to make.
A narrative also relates things in history or describes processes. The narrative organizes facts and presents events at a climatic or dramatic point and by flashback method; it brings the story to the present time. Narratives focus on settings, characters and events and engage the readers’ attention because of the elements of suspense, intrigue and excitement.
To summarize, the narrative essay
- is told from a particular point of view
- makes and supports a point
- is filled with precise detail
- uses vivid verbs and modifiers
- uses conflict and sequence as does any story
- may use dialogue
Descriptive Writing
Descriptive writing conveys images and impressions of a person, a place, an event or a thing. Descriptive writing appears almost everywhere, from reference books to poems. You might use a description to introduce a character in a narrative or to create a strong closing to a persuasive essay. In the descriptive type of writing, the writer appeals to the five senses.
The use of adjectives, figurative language such as similes, metaphors, alliterations and onomatopoeia are extremely important as they help to create images to please the senses.
Remember there are five types of imagery and they are named according to the senses to which they appeal: tactile – touch/feeling, visual images – sight, audible images - hearing, gustatory –taste, olfactory –smell.
Persuasive Writing
In persuasive writing, a writer takes a position FOR or AGAINST an issue and writes to convince the reader to believe or do something. Persuasive writing is often used in advertisements to get the reader to buy a product. It is also used in essays and other types of writing to get the reader to accept a point of view. In order to convince the reader you need more than opinion; you need facts or examples to back your opinion. So, be sure to do the research!
Persuasive writing follows a particular format. It has an introduction, a body where the argument is developed, and a conclusion. Persuasive writing attempts to convince the reader that the point of view or course of action recommended by the writer is valid. To accomplish this, the writer must develop a limited topic which is well defined and debatable, that is has more than one side. It is important that the author understand other sides of the position so that the strongest information to counter the others can be presented. In the essay, only one side of the issue is presented.
The verb ‘persuade’ means to convince someone to agree with you or to convince others to accept your opinion. In order to do this effectively you must be convincing, you must use various methods to be successful. You may use gestures, various tones of voice, and facial expressions, employ body language, use diagrams, pictures, graphs, statistics, etc. whatever it takes, you must ensure that you do it in order to be successful.
To ensure that you write effectively in this area you must employ different techniques/skills, to do well.
Some techniques include use of: repetition, evidence, analogies, contrast, rhetorical questions, sarcasm, reliable source of authority, statistics, appeal to emotion, direct personal appeal, definition or a personal experience, exaggeration, comparisons, anecdote.
1. Use of evidence – this giving concrete information that can be proven by the source, e.g. scientific.
2. Use of Analogy – this is the comparison of two things that are similar in certain ways to illustrate a point.
3. Use of reliable source or authority Example: Information from journals or encyclopedia.
4. Use of Contrast
5. Appeal to emotion
6. Use of rhetorical questions –A Rhetorical Question is a question that is asked not to be answered, but to affect the reader or listener.
7. Use of repetition – Repetition is a device in which a word, phrase or sentence is repeated for emphasis.
8. Direct Personal Appeal
9. An Anecdote: An anecdote is a short tale narrating an interesting or amusing biographical incident.An anecdote can provide an amusing and attention-getting opening if it is short and to the point.
10. Statistic or Fact: Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data. A fact is defined as something that is true, something that actually exists, or something having objective reality that can be verified according to an established standard of evaluation.Sometimes a statistic or fact will add emphasis or interest to your topic. It may be wise to include the item's authoritative source.
These are really ‘tools of persuasion’ as they GET to you.
G- Grab reader’s attention.
E- Engage the audience for the given time.
T- Talk about their belief.
Expository Writing
Exposition is a type of oral or written discourse that is used to explain, describe, give information or inform. The creator of an expository text cannot assume that the reader or listener has prior knowledge or prior understanding of the topic that is being discussed. One important point to keep in mind for the author is to try to use words that clearly show what they are talking about rather than blatantly telling the reader what is being discussed. Since clarity requires strong organization, one of the most important mechanisms that can be used to improve our skills in exposition is to provide directions to improve the organization of the text.
The expository category is characterized by facts. In this section students make use of facts, data from surveys, reports and manuals. There is usually analysis, definition, classification and reference.
A good piece of expository writing begins with a key sentence, which sums up or defines the subject matter. If your composition is going to be long or elaborate, you can use your introductory paragraph to make some general remarks, to address the reader, or to indicate the treatment you will give your subject in subsequent paragraphs.
Note: In this type of writing, a summing up paragraph is usually required. This summing up paragraph gives you the opportunity to tie your beginning with your writing as a whole.